Option B: Oceans and coastal margins
1. Ocean–atmosphere interactions
Geographic Inquiry - How physical processes link Earth’s atmospheric and ocean systems
- The operation of ocean currents, including their distribution, nutrient and energy transfers and the importance of oceanic conveyor belts
- Atmosphere–oceanic interactions associated with El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and La Niña cycles and their climatic, environmental and economic effects
- Detailed examples of the geographic impacts of El Niño and La Niña
- The formation, distribution and physical impacts of hurricanes on coastal margins, including storm surges
- Case study of one hurricane and its impacts on coastal places and people
- The changing role of oceans as a store and source of carbon dioxide (CO2) and the impacts of ocean acidification on coral reefs
2. Interactions between oceans and coastal places
Geographic Inquiry - How coastal places are shaped by their interactions with oceans
- Physical influences on coastal landscapes, including waves, tides, sediment supply, lithology, vegetation, subaerial processes and wave processes (littoral drift, hydraulic action and abrasion)
- The characteristics and formation of coastal landforms of erosion and deposition, including wave cut platform, cliff, stack, spit and beaches
- Advancing and retreating coastlines, including the role of isostatic and eustatic processes, and the associated landforms (relict cliff, raised beach, fjord)
- The role of coastal processes, wind and vegetation in sand dune development
3. Managing coastal margins
Geographic Inquiry - The varying power of different stakeholders in relation to coastal margin management
- Coastal erosion and flooding management strategies, including cliff line stabilization and managed retreat
- One coastal management case study focused on the decision-making process and perspectives of different actors
- Conflicting land-use pressures on coastlines, including commercial land uses (tourism, industry and housing) and conservation measures
- One case study to illustrate the roles of, and outcomes for, coastal stakeholders
- Management of coral reefs and mangrove swamps, including different stakeholder perspectives on their use and value
- Detailed examples of both ecosystems and their issues
- Sovereignty rights of nations in relation to territorial limits along coastal margins and exclusive economic zones (EEZs)
4. Ocean management futures
Geographic Inquiry - Future possibilities for managing the oceans as a global commons
- Causes and consequences of increasing demand for the abiotic resources of oceans, including minerals, oil and gas
- Trends in biotic resource use (fish and mammals) and the viability of alternatives to overfishing, including aquaculture, conservation areas and quotas
- Strengths and weaknesses of initiatives to manage ocean pollution, including local and global strategies for radioactive materials, oil and plastic waste
- The strategic value of oceans and sources of international conflict/insecurity, including the contested ownership and control of island, canals and transit choke points
- One contemporary geopolitical case study focusing on a contested ocean area